Fig. 1

Flowchart of patient enrollment. HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; PD-1 Programmed death 1. *For training and validation of the model, use about 2/3 to 4/5 of the sample for training, and the rest for validation [49]. The 2:1 ratio is a commonly used approach in machine learning and radiomics studies to balance the need for a comprehensive training dataset with the requirement for a substantial validation dataset